Which president adopted the policy of vietnamization

Nixon's visit to China ushered in a new era of U. What do you mean by detente? Nixon visited the secretary-general of the Soviet Communist party, Leonid I. What was the Nixon Doctrine quizlet?

During the Vietnam War, the Nixon Doctrine was created. It stated that the United States would honor its exisiting defense commitments, but in the future other countries would have to fight their own wars without support of American troops. What was the Carter Doctrine? The Carter Doctrine was a policy proclaimed by President of the United States Jimmy Carter in his State of the Union Address on January 23, , which stated that the United States would use military force, if necessary, to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf.

What did the Bush doctrine do? The Bush Doctrine downgrades containment and deterrence in favor of pre-emption. This is the idea that in a world of terrorist organizations, dangerous regimes, and weapons of mass destruction, the United States may need to attack first. When did the Truman Doctrine end? What typically happens during Semana Santa in Spain? Large death tolls amongst American soldiers, including many under the age of 21, combined with large numbers of desertions and draft dodging led to drastic changes in the U.

In addition to human losses and financial deficit, U. Upon taking office, Nixon increased covert operations against communist Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. These activities worried the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack Cuba, in violation of the agreement which had ended the missile crisis. Meanwhile, U. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles.

The final round of diplomatic notes, reaffirming the accord, were exchanged in November. In September of , the election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile led Nixon to order that Allende not be allowed to take office. Edward Korry, U. Ambassador to Chile, told Nixon that he saw no alternative to Allende, and Nixon ruled out American intervention, though he remained willing to assist opponents of Allende who might come forward. The military regrouped under General Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Allende in with the backing of the United States.

During the coup, the deposed president died under disputed circumstances. There have been allegations of CIA involvement in the coup, incited by declassified transcripts of conversations between Nixon and his National Security Adviser, Henry Kissinger. The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, although the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Palestinian Arab neighbors, and that the United States should encourage this.

The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the U. Nixon believed that the U. Israel suffered initial losses but had cut deep into foreign territory by the time the U. After taking no action at the beginning of the war, Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. The war resulted in the oil crisis, in which Arab nations refused to sell crude oil to the U. OAPEC declared that it would limit or stop oil shipments to the United States and other countries if they supported Israel in the conflict.

The U. As a result, European countries and Japan sought to disassociate themselves from the U. Middle East policy. Arab oil producers had also linked the end of the embargo with successful U. To address these developments, the Nixon Administration began parallel negotiations with both Arab oil producers, to end the embargo, and with Egypt, Syria, and Israel, to arrange an Israeli pull-back of military forces.

By January 18, , Kissinger had negotiated an Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai. The promise of a negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was sufficient to convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March of By May, Israel agreed to withdraw from the Golan Heights.

The effects of the embargo were immediate, and the price of oil quadrupled by This had a dramatic effect on oil-exporting nations, as the countries of the Middle East, which had long been dominated by the major industrial powers of the world, were seen to have acquired control of a vital commodity.

The traditional flow of capital reversed as the oil-exporting nations accumulated more wealth. The Arab embargo had a negative impact on the U. The retail price of a gallon of gasoline petrol rose from a national average of State governments requested citizens not put up Christmas lights, with Oregon banning commercial lighting altogether.

Politicians called for a national gas rationing program. The energy crisis lingered on throughout the s, amid the weakening competitive position of the dollar in world markets.

In diplomacy and international relations, shuttle diplomacy is the action of a third party in serving as an intermediary between principals in a dispute, without direct principal-to-principal contact. The term was first applied to describe the efforts of United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, beginning November 5, , which facilitated the cessation of hostilities following the Yom Kippur War.

Negotiators often use shuttle diplomacy when one or both of the two principals refuses to recognize the other. Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of Soviet influence in South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship recently signed by India and the U. The visit marked the first time a U. Since the Chinese Civil War, the U. A breakthrough came in early , when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players.

Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15, , it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon that the President would visit China the following February. The announcements astounded the world. The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact.

In February of , Nixon and his wife traveled to China, accompanied by over television journalists. Controversially, the communique recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification.

The statement enabled the U. However, the United States continued to maintain official relations with the government of the Republic of China in Taiwan until , when the U. The improved relations between the U. Specifically, Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear arms. Following the announcement of his visit to China, Nixon made a visit to Moscow, arriving on May 22, Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles.

Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies; however, he believed voters tended to focus on their own financial conditions. At the time Nixon took office in , inflation was at 4. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, and its expensive policies were, together with the costs of the Vietnam War, causing large budget deficits. Nixon thus perceived the state of the economy to be a threat to his reelection chances.

The most obvious means of reducing inflation was the cessation of the Vietnam War. This policy could not be implemented overnight, however, and the U. The primary objective of New Federalism, as opposed to the 18th-century political philosophy of Federalism, is the restoration to the states of some of the autonomy and power that they had lost to the federal government during the New Deal, including the power to administer social programs.

These proposals were mostly rejected by congress; however, Nixon gained popularity from voters by advocating these policies. Due to both the excess printed dollars and the negative U. Meanwhile, European countries began leaving the Bretton Woods international financial system, which had based the value of foreign currencies on the value of the gold-backed dollar. In , Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage cuts and price freezes. The Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use this authority.

With inflation unresolved by August of , and an election year looming, however, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. He subsequently announced temporary wage and price controls. He also suspended the gold standard, allowing the dollar to float against other currencies and ending the convertibility of the dollar into gold.

These policies essentially ended the Bretton Woods system of international financial exchange, which had been in place since the end of World War II. The policies were more successful, however, as political maneuvers.

By aligning himself with anti-inflation policies, Nixon appealed to voters and created a strong competition for Democrats. After the elections, which Nixon won handily, inflation began to rise again.

Nixon thus reimposed price controls in June of , which quickly became unpopular with the public and businesspeople. Many saw the price board bureaucracy, associated with Republican policy, as more dangerous than powerful labor unions, which were associated with the Democratic party. The price controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores, and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, , their statutory authorization lapsed.

The Nixon administration did not prioritize civil rights to the extent of the previous Kennedy and Johnson administrations.

However, violent urban protests, which first broke out in the summer of , and recurred occasionally for the rest of the decade, sparked a conservative backlash in the public opinion of white citizens. Nixon sought a politically viable stance on civil rights, promising a return to law and order while simultaneously offering improved educational and business opportunities to African Americans.

The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the south. Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationists those supporting school segregation , and liberal Democrats who supported integration. He supported integration in principle, but he was opposed to the use of busing using bus systems to transport African American students to previously all-white school districts and vice versa to force integration.

Agnew had little interest in the work, so most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Many whites reacted angrily to busing and forced integration, sometimes protesting and rioting. Nixon opposed busing personally, but enforced court orders requiring its use. In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in —the first significant federal affirmative action program. The plan required government contractors in Philadelphia to hire minority workers, meeting certain hiring goals by specified dates.

It was intended to combat institutionalized discrimination in specific skilled building trade unions that prevented equitable hiring of African Americans. First, the Laird policy for "Vietnamization" was adopted. Responsibility for fighting would be turned over to the Vietnamese, in order to reduce American casualties. Gradually American forces would be withdrawn. This would buy time on the home front.

Second, a variant of the "madman" approach in international relations would be adopted. The administration would warn the North Vietnamese that unless they settled soon they would be subjected to carpet bombing of cities, mining of harbors, and even the spread of radioactive debris to halt infiltration of the South.

Irrigation dikes would be destroyed and forests defoliated. Third, Nixon and Kissinger would apply the principle of "linkage" in dealing with the Soviet Union: the arms and trade agreements to be proposed to the Soviets see below would require a quid pro quo—Moscow would have to pressure Hanoi to agree to a settlement.

The Vietnam policy failed. Nixon announced the withdrawal of a half million troops, and by May no American forces were on combat missions. By January , only twenty-five thousand American troops remained in Vietnam.

The level of fatalities and injuries dropped. But the combat effectiveness of the South Vietnamese did not improve. The invasion of Laos by South Vietnamese forces not only was ineffective but turned into a rout, leaving little doubt that they would be no match for the North Vietnamese. The escalation of the air war also failed. In mid-March a secret bombing campaign against Cambodia began; it was kept secret from Congress and the American people for two years.

In the spring of bombing was renewed over North Vietnam reversing a halt ordered by President Johnson in in the industrial complex between Hanoi and Haiphong.

Ground actions were also stepped up. Incursions into Laos doubled in South Vietnamese and American troops made incursions into Cambodia in April and May to clear out enemy units and headquarters in the "Parrot's Beak" salient, which was dangerously close to Saigon. The main effect of the intervention was to drive Cambodian Communist units to the west, into the heart of Cambodia, where together with their North Vietnamese allies they prepared for the overthrow of the existing pro-American regime.

Not only was this policy unsuccessful militarily, but it triggered renewed antiwar protests at home. A huge antiwar demonstration was then held in Washington, D. North Vietnam meanwhile had its own plans. It prepared for a general offensive in , timed to put pressure on the Nixon administration to settle the war on Hanoi's terms prior to the presidential elections.